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Literary journals (entry)

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LITERARY JOURNALS. The genesis of the Russian literary journalism is associated with St. Petersburg, where in 1728-36 and 1738-42 circulated first and only journal in the Russian language at that time - Primechaniya k Vedomostyam (the name changed), and included poetry and satiric and moralising material. Along with the genre cognate journals Ezhemesyachnye Sochineniya and Novye Ezhemesyachnye sochineniya (1786-96) it was published by the Academy of Sciences and functioned predominantly within the popular scientific framework, however they saw the contribution of the epoch's leading writers and gradually developed the tendency towards the enlargement of their own literary section and its diversification in terms of genre and subject matter. The first privately owned literary journals that emerged in Russia in 1759 Trudolyubivaya pchela and Prazdnoe vremya, v polzu upotreblennoe functioned for a short while, and in the 1760s Moscow became the centre of Russian journalism. The renascence of journalism in St. Petersburg was caused to by Catherine's II endeavour to found in 1769 the journal Vsyakaya Vsyachina, geared towards the West European models of satiric literary journals. It was followed by a burst of the Petersburg literary journalism: during 1769 over eight satiric journals appeared, with N. I. Novikov's Truten playing a special role; it engaged itself in a rigid polemic with the Empress' journal. This dispute, which had spilled over the bounds of the discussed issue of the subject of satire, gave rise to the tradition of close intermingling of proper literary and social and political problematic, typical for Russian literary journalism. The typical Petersburg satiric literary journal of the epoch was usually compiled by one person (publisher) and delivered to subscribers in the form of daily leaflets, which were later, upon the completion of the publication (conceived as one whole literary work) bound. Until 1774 a number of literary journals circulated in St. Petersburg: M. D. Chulkov's Parnassky Shchepetilnik (1770), Trudolyubivy Muravey (1771), V. G. Ruban's Starina i novizna (1772-73) and others, however it was Novikov's journals, among others, Zhivopisets (1772-73), that left an imprint in the history of literature; a number of its publications marked a threshold in the development of Russian narrative prose. The dissemination of the Mason ideology evoked the emerging of spiritual and moral literary journals (Novikov's Utrenny Svet 1777-79, later in Moscow; Utrennie Chasy 1788-89; Beseduyushchy Grazhdanin 1789), which significantly contributed to the development of the Russian literary language and conditioned the formation of the moral and ethic lexical layer of the Russian language. E. R. Dashkova's Sobesednik Lyubiteley Russkogo Slova was the last large Petersburg literary journal of the 18th century (1783-84); it included diverse literary material and the revealing genre traits of the future thick literary journal of the 19th century. As the echo of the heyday of 1769 I. A. Krylov's Pochta Dukhov, (1789) and Zritel (1792; jointly with A.I. Klushin and P. A. Plavilshchikov) appeared in the late 18th century. The literary section in I. P. Pnin and A. F. Bestuzhev's educational St. Petersburg journal (1798) was of minor importance. In the late 18th century Moscow took over the leadership role in literary journalism, there N. M. Karamzin's most significant journal projects were put into practise. I. I. Martynov's literary journal Severny Vestnik along with some others were of particular importance at the turn of the 19th century, however the lethargy of Petersburg literary journalism was finally shaken in the 1810s, when N. I. Grech's Syn Otechestva gained in stature, as well as literary journals, involved in the activities of the Free Society of Friends of Philology, Science and the Arts (A. E. Izmaylov's Blagonamerenny 1818-26) and the Free Society for the Friends of Russian Philology (Sorevnovatel prosveshcheniya i blagotvoreniya 1818-25) and others. Gradually a new type of a monthly literary critical journal, traditional for the 19th century developed (divided into sections with a large number of authors), however until the early 1830s literary journals were close in concept to almanac-miscellanies, popular at that time (among the most famous ones were - Polyarnaya Zvezda; Severnie Tsvety; Nevsky Almanakh, 1825-33; Podsnezhnik 1829-30; A. F. Smirdin's Novoselye (1833-34). All literary journals were subject to rigid censorship. The mid 1830s were marked by the foundation of O. I. Senkovsky's Biblioteka Dlya Chteniya and A.S.Pushkin's Sovremennik, which became for a short while the best literary journal in Russia. Since 1839 the leading role was successfully challenged by A. A. Kraevsky's resumed Otechestvennye Zapiski, which had brought together the country's best literary talents before N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev acquired the Sovremennik in 1846. Among other Petersburg literary journals of the 1840s the Finsky Vestnik (1845-50; since 1848 Severnoe Obozrenie stood out for its thematic originality. The polemic between literary journals until the 1840s had not yet gained public significance, as most of the publishers and readers belonged predominantly to the same social circle. The social upsurge of the mid-1850s changed considerably the pattern of Russian journalism, which found reflection in the split within Sovremennik after the new editorial board headed by N. G. Chernyshevsky entered the journal in the mid-1850s. From that period every literary journal addressed some social layer, representing its artistic tastes and public demands. The ideology of pochvenichestvo (the return tot he soil), which echoed with the Slavophile concepts, was presented in the journals of the Dostoevskys brothers Vremya and Epokha; G. E. Blagosvetlov's journal Russkoe slovo was the mouthpiece of the raznochinets-intelligentsia radicals (raznochinets - from Russian, of mixed ranks, part of the intelligentsia of non noble birth); V. P. Meshchersky's Grazhdanin was aimed at the conservative aristocratic reader, etc. Frequent cases of literary journals suppression and the replacement of editors had marginal impact whatsoever on the established co-relation of literary and socio-political forces in the post-reform Russia. For instance, the Sovremennik suppressed in 1866, was replaced by Nekrasov's Otechestvennye zapisky, which he in turn acquired in 1867 from Kraevsky; the Russkoe slovo was succeeded by the radical Delo; the interests of the liberal-minded intelligentsia were represented by M. M. Stasyulevich's Vestnik Evropy, etc. Every literary journal gradually gained a relatively permanent readership and writership, and the publication of an author whose views were out of tune with the journal's orientation was taken as a sensation. The upsurge of the public activities in the country resulted in the 1860s in a second renascence of journalism: a satiric supplement to the Sovremennik - (1859-63) and the journal Iskra initiated by N. A. Dobrolyubov became important. Subsequently, the satiric element had faded into the background in thin weekly literary journals and they carried on mainly as humourous ones: journals Strekoza (1875-1908, 1915-18), Shut (1879-1914), Oskolki (1881-1916) and others enjoyed the largest popularity. Weekly entertainment illustrated literary journals also addressed a wide readership, with A. F. Marx's Niva, Vsemirnaya Illustratsia (1869-98), Zhivopisnoe obozrenie (1872-1902, 1904-05), Illyustrirovanny Mir (1879-96), Ogonek (1879-83, 1899-1918), Rodina (1879-1917) and a number of others as the most representative of the genre. Their literary supplement, which came out as separate monthly thin' journals (sometimes they split off in to independent publications, like the journal Trud, 1889-96), published not only popular belles-lettres, but also works of the major Russian writers. In the reign of Emperor Alexander III journalistic activities in St. Petersburg lost its edge: the difference in the ideological concepts of the major thick literary journals was insignificant whatsoever, including narodism Russkoe Bogatstvo and the Severny Vestnik, sympathising with the emerging Modernist movement. The Petersburg literary journalism of the Silver Age was characteristic of exceptional diversity. New aesthetic trends engendered a previously unknown type of the literary journal, combining apolitical subtlety in word collocations and a high level of polygraphy. S. P. Dyagilev's Mir Iskusstva and S. K. Makovsky's Apollon - being samples of this literary journal - stood in relation to the symbolism, as well as the religious philosophic journal Novy Put and its successor Voprosy Zhizni (1905). Acmeism, as a typical Petersburg phenomenon manifested itself in the Apollon (since 1913) and the journal Giperborey. In the situation of an extremely escalated social confrontation the belles-lettres section of Petersburg's major journals. Such journals as the democratic oriented Mir Bozhy, God's World (later Sovremenny Mir,), V. S. Mirolyubov's Zhurnal Dlya Vsekh (1896-1906), Sovremennik (1911-15) and some others; the legal Marxists organs Nachalo (1899) and Zhizn; a monthly of a Socialist-Revolutionary orientated journal Zavety; Maxim Gorky's Letopis, which took a strong anti-militaristic stand during WW I, consolidated considerable literary potential. As before the Vestnik Evropy and Russkoe Bogatstvo retained its influence. The political events of 1905 incited a third and last development in Petersburg satiric journalism: such journals as the Zhupel, Zabiyaka, Pulemet (all of them circulated in 1905-06), Zritel (1905-1906 and 1908), Signal (1905), Adskaya Pochta, Payats (both circulated in 1906) and many others were too cutting and were quickly suppressed. After a short while the more moderate Satirikon, from which the Novy Satirikon split off (1913-18) also became one of the best metropolitan literary journals. Almanacs and miscellaneous journals again gained popularity (the miscellaneous journals of the Znanie and Shipovnik, publishing houses, G. I. Chulkov's almanac Fakely, 1906-08, and many others). Among children's literary journals, the journal Tropinka (1906-12) was notable for its bright literary talents); during different times the children's journals Zadushevnoe Slovo (1877-1918), Rodnik (1882-1917), Yuny Chitatel (1899-1906) and others enjoyed popularity, among illustrated entertainment literary journals Argus (1913-17) (among others - Probuzhdenie 1906-18; Vsemirnaya Panorama 1909-18; Solntse Rossii 1910-16, etc.) are of mention. In 1917-18 all the literary journals of the Pre-revolutionary Petrograd were closed down by the Soviet authorities. A. V. lunacharsky's journal Plamya (1918-20), and Gryadushchee (1918-21), which were aiming at creating a new culture, disappeared alongside with the Proletkult (The Proletarian Culture organisation that provided the foundations for a truly proletarian art). The journals Dom Iskusstva, and Dom Literatorov; Vestnik Literatury (1919-22), Knizhny Ugol (1918-22), which reflected the diversity of the post-revolutionary Petrograd cultural life, were just as short-lived as their predecessors, though representative in terms of literary significance. The almanac-journal Zapiski Mechtateley (1919-22) of the Alkonost publishing-house became the last echoes of symbolism. The journals attempting in 1924 to revive the pre-revolutionary thick type of literary journal in the new environment meet with differing levels of success: Russky sovremennik, which accumulated the country's major literary resources, was shortly afterwards suppressed, and Zvezda became the city's leading journal in the Soviet and Post-Soviet period. The new ideology dominated the old framework: there circulated the satiric journals (Begemot 1922-28; Smekhach 1924-28; Pushka 1926-29, and others), children's journals (Severnoe Siyanie 1919-20; Vorobey later Novy Robinzon 1923-25, etc.); illustrated journals (Krasnaya Panorama 1923-30, and others) and so forth. In the 1930s the Leningrad journal activity was quite diverse: the journal Rezets (1924-39, since 1940 Leningrad), started as a purely proletarian publication, later engaged professional writers, Perelom (1930-32, of the Peasant Writers Society publishing-house), Literaturnaya Ucheba (1930-34, later in Moscow), Literaturny Sovremennik (1933-41, in 1930-32 Leningrad), Literaturny Leningrad (1933-37) and others were published; the city's best writers and artists contributed to the children's journals Chizh and Yezh and Koster. The two Leningrad literary journals Zvezda and Leningrad survived the process of centralisation in literature, the repressions and the Great Patriotic War. Spiced with a shrewd and absurd critique, the resolution of the Organisational Bureau of the All-Union Communist Party (of Bolsheviks) Central Committee from 14 August 1946 concluded, that the city of Leningrad lacks appropriate facilities for the publication of these two literary journals. The Leningrad was thus closed down the same year. It was only in 1955 that the Zvezda was accompanied by the journal Neva, in 1969 the youth literary journal Avrora appeared; finding themselves under party control and censorship these three periodicals determined the profile of the literary periodicals until the mid-1980s. The flourishing of Leningrad literature, not subjected to censorship, which in the 1950-80s was distributed through samizdat (underground press), led to the emergence of quite a number of typewritten literary journals, to a certain extent politically engaged and opposing official periodicals both in terms of structure and literary material: 37 (1976-81), Chasy (1976-90), Severnaya Pochta (1979-81); Mitin Zhurnal (since 1985) - the only periodical, which continues to be published by typographic means until today, and others. The lifting of censorship, political upheavals, transition to new financial and organisational forms of activity in the late 1980s - mid1990s considerably transformed the framework of periodical publishing in St. Petersburg, however, left the literary activities almost untouched - Zvezda and Neva remained Leningrad's major journals. In the early 1990s the successor of the samizdat traditions Vestnik Novoy Literatury (which quickly disappeared) stirred a wide response, the Avrora had been shifted to the literary periphery, the critical bibliographic journal Novaya Russkaya Kniga, which circulated in 1999-2002 enjoyed high stature. In 2002 B. N. Strugatsky founded a new thick literary science fiction journal Polden XXI veka.

References: Очерки по истории русской журналистики и критики: В 2 т. Л., 1950-1965; Берков П. Н. История русской журналистики XVIII века. М.; Л., 1952; Очерки истории русской советской журналистики, 1917-1932. М., 1966; Очерки истории русской советской журналистики, 1933-1945. М., 1968; Литературный процесс и русская журналистика конца XIX - начала XX века, 1890-1904: Соц.-демокр. и общедемокр. изд. М., 1981; Литературный процесс и русская журналистика конца XIX - начала XX века, 1890-1904: Бурж.-либер. и модернист. изд. М., 1982; Русская литература и журналистика начала XX века, 1905-1917: Бурж.-либер. и модернист. изд. М., 1984; Русская литература и журналистика начала XX века, 1905-1917: Большевист. и общедемокр. изд. М., 1984; Савицкий С. А. Андеграунд: История и мифы ленингр. неофиц. лит. М., 2002.

V. A. Kuznetsov, D. N. Cherdakov.

Persons

Alexander III, Emperor
Bestuzhev Alexander Fedoseevich
Blagosvetlov Grigory Evlampievich
Catherine II, Empress
Chernyshevsky Nikolay Gavrilovich
Chulkov Georgy Ivanovich
Chulkov Mikhail Dmitrievich
Dashkova Ekaterina Romanovna, Duchess
Dobrolyubov Nikolay Alexandrovich
Dostoevsky Fedor Mikhailovich
Dostoevsky Mikhail Mikhailovich
Dyagilev Sergey Pavlovich
Gorky Maxim (Alexey Maximovich Peshkov)
Grech Nikolay Ivanovich
Karamzin Nikolay Mikhailovich
Klushin Alexander Ivanovich
Kraevsky Andrey Alexandrovich
Krylov Ivan Andreevich
Lunacharsky Anatoly Vasilievich
Makovsky Sergey Konstantinovich
Martynov I.I.
Marx Adolf Fedorovich
Meshchersky Vladimir Petrovich, Duke
Mirolyubov Viktor Sergeevich
Nekrasov Nikolay Alexeevich
Novikov Nikolay Ivanovich
Panaev Ivan Ivanovich
Plavilshchikov Peter Alexeevich
Pnin Ivan Petrovich
Pushkin Alexander Sergeevich
Ruban Vasily Grigorievich
Senkovsky Osip Ivanovich (Yuzef Yulian)
Smirdin Alexander Filippovich
Stasyulevich Mikhail Matveevich
Strugatsky Boris Natanovich

Bibliographies

The subject Index

Trudolyubivaya Pchela (Industrious Bee), journal
Prazdnoe Vremya v Polzu Upotreblennoe, Leisure Time Spent with Benefit, journal
Vsyakaya Vsyachina (All Sorts and Sundries), magazine
Truten (The Drone), journal
Severny Vestnik (Northern Herald), journal, 1885-1898
Syn Otechestva (Son of the Fatherland), journal
Polyarnaya Zvezda (The Polar Star), almanac
Severnye Tsvety (Northern Flowers), almanac
Biblioteka Dlya Chteniya (The Reader's Library), journal
Sovremennik (Contemporary), journal
Otechestvennye Zapiski (Notes of the Fatherland), journal
Vremya (The Time), journal
Epokha (The Epoch), journal
Russkoe slovo (The Russian Word), journal, 1859-1866
Grazhdanin (Citizen), journal newspaper, 1872-1914
Delo (Affair), journal, 1866-1888
Vestnik Evropy (The Herald of Europe), 1866-1918
Niva (Field), journal
Severny Vestnik (Northern Herald), journal, 1885-1898
Mir Iskusstva (World of Art), journal
Apollon (Apollo), journal
Novy Put (New Way), newspaper
Giperborey (Hyperborean), publishing house and journal, 1914-18
Mir Bozhy (God's World), journal, 1892-1906
Zavety (Behests), journal, 1912-1914
Zhizn (Life), journal
Letopis (The Chronicle), journal
Satirikon, journal
Knowledge, publishing house, 1898-1913
Brier, publishing house, 1906-22
Alkonost, publishing house, 1918-1923
Zvezda (The Star), journal
Leningrad, journal
Chiz and Yezh (Siska and Hedgehog), journals
Koster (The Bonfire), journal
Neva, journal
Avrora (Aurora), journal